The Last Resort--Sino-Dutch Marital Relations Before the Chinese Council in early 19th Century Batavia 作者：袁冰陵（Yuan bingling）

We do not know how many truly Chinese (totok) women lived in Batavia, as, according to my experience, the marriage records of the Kong Koan never mention the origin of the spouses. In a general way, we may say that previous to the availability of the Kong Koan archives, information on the Jakarta Chinese was not abundant, and such in spite of their importance for the Dutch East Indies. This paucity of records is reflected in the lack of studies on the subject. Among the few texts, mention should be made however of the Kaiba lidai shiji (Records of the Pioneers of Batavia through the Ages) edited by Xu Yunjiao.[1] The records were the work of several unknown authors, probably of the Qianlong period, as the Record goes until 1795. There exist several manuscript copies of this text, one being preserved at the library of the Sinological Institute in Leiden which was made in the Jiaqing period. Xu edited the work and identified many place names and titles, which make his work an invaluable source for understanding the archive materials we deal with in the present article.

Also on the position of women in the capital, the chronicle allows for interesting insights. Thus, for the year 1648, we read that after the demise of a Chinese Kapitan called Yan Er, the Dutch Governor General and the members of the Council of Dutch Indies proposed his wife the Lady Kapitan Maoli shi 貓厘氏 as his successor [2]. Maoli is the Chinese transcription for Bali, so this lady has no other identity than that of being of Balinese origin. She was duly appointed and kept the position for seven years. This must have been the first, if not the only, female Kapitan in the history of the Chinese community in Batavia. Her appointment by the Dutch authorities came one year later, in 1649, and henceforward, at the head of several lieutenants, as Kapitan Toea, she had her seat at the Chinese Council of deliberations (bitjara) and she acted just like a man. Her judgments were always very clear and fair. She certainly was an outstanding barbarian woman![3]

Native women, as spouses of Chinese, could therefore enjoy a certain emancipation. The position of the very few Chinese born ladies in Batavia could be even higher. In 1699, a certain Wang Jie arrived in Batavia with his wife, nee Zheng. This caused such a sensation that the whole town went out to see them disembark. The lady was most beautiful and elegant. Even the Dutch Governor wanted to have a look at her, and invited both spouses to his residence. When the ship that had brought them returned to China, the news of this event became known there, and the Chinese authorities arrested the person responsible for bringing the lady out of the country. He and several accomplices were put to death. [4]

A third instance of the influence of women occurs in 1689. The wife of a certain Lin Sen was known by the Dutch for her abilities as a healer, and thus was often summoned by the Governor. At one of these occasions, she told the Governor that there were so many Chinese in Batavia now that there was a need for two more persons to administrate them. The Governor agreed to this. Thereupon this lady's husband and also certain Cai Wei applied for these positions, and they were appointed as Lieutenants. Henceforward the Chinese council at Batavia had therefore four Lieutenants.[5]

If all these examples have something in common, it is that women could exert influence and even obtain high positions for themselves or their husbands. This may be ascribed to the fact that Batavia, in spite of its colonial institutions, was still the scene of a dynamic multi-racial society where, especially in the early days, gender and race divisions may have been less rigid than either in China or in Holland. Yet in the cases we have quoted also carried clearly, at least for two of them, the stigma of transgression. Kapitan Maoli was compared to Wu Zetian, and the Chinese spouse of Wang Jie caused the death of several of her countrymen.

19th day of the 6th (lunar) month of the Gengxu year, that is Wednesday July 30, 1790 of the Dutch calendar, Kapitan Tang and Kapitan Chen being on duty. The council (bitjara) convened in the residence of Kapitan Toea of Angkee (Hongxi 洪溪) on the case concerning Li Yanniang [6], sister in law of Mr. Gu Ri, living within the walls of the city.

It has been found by the investigating officer that Mr. Gu Ri's wife younger sister whose name is Li Yanniang, has been seduced and kept in hiding by a Dutch pork butcher living in Michalao chukou (Ruma Bichara). All other methods having failed (to retrieve the girl), they now have directly deposited a complaint. Luckily, the Waidan[7] having the right to investigate matters that occur within the city walls, we therefore prayed the [Wai]dan to investigate the matter. Thanks to him, the whereabouts of the lady in question were discovered, she was arrested and subsequently brought to this court to be interrogated. We have summoned Gu Ri and his wife to appear here, in order to transfer Li Yanniang to them, so that they may take her back home. We have recommended that they find a husband for her as soon as possible, in order to prevent this lady Li to commit again the same error. Mr. and Mrs. Li Ri have thanked us and left the court.

On this very day, at four o'clock in the afternoon, the secretary submitted a request for the authorisation to put on the gangue. This luckily was authorised. Thus, in three days from now, on next Friday, at four o'clock in the afternoon, the Kapitan Toea will invite all the Lieutenants to gather at Angkee. And soldiers will be ordered to take this (Li) Yanniang by force to the Chinese kampong (tangren jianguan 唐人監光), parading her through the streets and beating her with a rattan whip, as a deterrent example for all.

The members of the council having gathered at the residence of the Kapitan Toea, [being present] this month's officials on duty Kapitan Zheng Jia and Kapitan Ye Xuan. A message emanating from the Vice-Piskal[8], concerning the case of the unwed ladies Shen Guiniang, Zhu Xiuniang and Lin Chunniang, who had run away from home.

The judges: “This morning in the Kantoor[10] you stated that you wanted to go to Kuningan [11], how do you dare to make a different statement here? ” Guiniang stood silent and did not reply.

The judges then heard Lin Chunniang, and asked her: “With whom did you stay?” She replied: “As my parents are very poor, they accepted money from [Shen] Six[12], the madam of a girls-boat [13], and I was taken to this person to be brought up.”

Reply: “Elder sister Guiniang invited me to come with her to Gambir[14] where her elder sister lives. She said her sister’s husband was a Dutchman, and she talked highly of his great fortune and status. She said: ‘instead of you and I slaving and suffering here, we better go and marry a Dutchman.’ The slave-girl of Guiniang, Bilian, was acting as go-between. Yesterday evening, a Dutch horse carriage came to fetch us. But because we were changing our clothes and gathering our belongings, we were late, and when we came out of the door, the carriage had left already. As we did not succeed in getting away then, we decided to go ourselves this morning.”

Xiuniang replied: “All this was arranged by the slave girl Bilian, who said that we could go and marry Dutchmen in Junlin an. She said there was also a lady Lanming[15] who was in on the scheme. ”

Guiniang relied: “It was Bilian, together with Wang’a[16] who told me this.”

The judges then heard old lady[17] Shen Liu and certain Su Lainiang, asking: “Since when did these three girls live with you?” Lainiang answered: “Guiniang and her father are staying with us since one month, whereas Chunniang is with us since already two years. As the parents of Chunniang are very poor, I did lend them fifty-five Song pieces of silver[18], and the girl was given to me to raise. Xiuniang came last Wednesday from Dananwang.”

The judges then questioned the mother of Guiniang, named Nai Yazui[19]: “Do you know the reason why your daughter ran away?”

The judges then asked the three girls: “At what time did you run away this morning?” They answered: “We left through the gate at about four o'clock, and when we came in the proximity of Reyamaochi[20], the sun had already risen. Then we met a group of Dutch soldiers, and very much afraid we ran away, and entered into a house of a native. Thereupon the master of that house got up, and told us he was a Moshi [21]. He took us to the Kantoor to be heard.”

The assembled judges gave the following verdict: “After heaving heard the case of the three unwed girls Shen Guiniang, Zhu Xiuniang and Lin Chunniang who schemed together to run away, on the evidence of all the dispositions, we have come to the conclusion that Guiniang and Xiuniang have reached already the nubile age (litt: have taken the hairpin), but were not yet betrothed, and that they had conceived they idea to find a husband by themselves. [22] As to Chunniang, she is only fifteen and still has hanging hair[23]. Moreover, 'without a needle one cannot tread a thread', and therefore luckily 'the white jade as yet remained undefiled'. Regarding Bilian and Wang’a, they are slave girls. And they should be dealt with according to the law, as they have dared to disregard the good manners in order to do wrong, and entice unwed girls of good family to scheme to run away. In these they have committed a grave offence against the law of the land, and according to the law there are no ways to excuse them for what they have done. We officers will report this case to the Dutch Assistant[24], so that they may be dealt with according to their crimes, as an example for the future.”

The court met specially in order to receive the report of Kapitan Gao, because on this very day a Dutchman, together with a [Chinese] lady Qiu Niangna had addressed a request to the tang[25] for a [travel] permit to Long’ai. This lady was the wife of He Yasan, the younger brother of He Shuisheng. Because formerly this lady had had an improper relationship with this He Shuisheng, the Council has pronounced a judgement that Qiu Yaliu[26] had to take her back to his house for the time being, until the time that He Yasan would had recovered from his illness and would be able to take care of his affairs again. At that time, she should again become the wife of He Yasan. Today, the reason why this lady was about to marry a Dutchman should be examined in detail.

Lieutenant Chen Binlang brought out a detailed report concerning the case of Pangwu, a Balinese woman, who, together with her daughter Rao Yueniang had appeared before the him, saying: “Formerly my daughter Yueniang ran away, and because of this I was detained at the police station for one day. Today I happened to meet my daughter on the road, just when she was crossing the Little South Gate (Xiao nanmen小南門), sitting in a carriage. I asked her what she was up to, and she told me she wanted to go and see Rao Yaqin, and ask her, whether she could get the legacy her father had left behind. I went with her, and afterwards I took her to the Kong Koan to report to you.”

In answer to the Tribunal, the Dutch Assistant sent on May 16, 1834, two letters (nos. 1053 and 1547). These said: “Having received your letters and reports (etc., etc.) and seen the police reports, we have decided that Rao Yueniang did not commit any offence or disobeyed any orders. It has been decided that this case should be dealt with according to the [Dutch] law. This is a final decision. Moreover, at the time of the audience, there was no jury present, After due consideration, this case of Rao Yueniang is hereby definitely settled.”[27]

The judges berated her, saying: “If your husband beat you all over, why did you not come to the Council for help?” She said: “Because I did not want to make a lot of trouble.” The judges then asked her again: “Where do you live now?” She answered: “As this Red Hair returned to his homeland, I now live within the city walls in the place of Lady Majili [28].” The judges asked again: “Do you want to return to your husband?” She replied: “I am now ashamed to live with my husband. I ask you to allow me to divorce.” Next they asked Lin Tianyi, and he also agreed to the divorce.

(2) Badaweiya huaren yu zhonghe maoyi 巴達維亞華人与中荷貿易, Guangxi 1997.

Wen Guangyi and others, Yindonixiya huaqiao shi 印度尼西亞華僑史 (A History

Wu Shihuang, Yinni shihua 印尼史話 (Historical Tales about Indonesia), Jakarta

Xu Yunjiao (ed.), Kaiba lidai shiji 開吧歷代史記 (Records of the Pioneers of

[1] See Nanyang xuebao no. 9, Singapore 1953.

[2] According to Xu Yunjiao (page 15a), however, Kapitan Yan Er occupied his position in 1663. There is therefore a problem in the date of the Kaiba lidai shiji. This question has to await further study.

[3] The commentary of the Kaiba lidai shiji adds here that: “When women lead the country, the roles of yin and yang are reversed. This spells the ruin of the nation. Just look at the examples of Wu Zetian of the Tang and Empress Lü of the Han. But all this was nothing compared to the present case. This Maoli was a barbarian woman (fanfu 番婦), without any learning nor intelligence, and she did not belong to our kind, and here she was appointed as the leader of all the Chinese. From this we can infer that no Chinese of quality were present [in Batavia] at those times.”

[4] Kaiba lidai shiji, p.35.

[5] Kaiba lidai shiji, p.34.

[6] Names carrying the suffix -niang indicate that the lady in question is native-born Chinese.

[7] Dan is the abbreviation of danmenggong 淡孟公, a transcription of the Malay term temengung, which is an honorific title for a high government official. The gong'an bu distinguish between a “outer” danmenggong called “waidan”外淡 and an “inner” danmenggong called “neidan”內淡. According to the “Record of Kalapa” by Jie, quoted in the Appendix of the translation of the Kaiba lidai shiji by Xu Yunjiao. Javanese officers in charge of the order inside and outside the city were called “danbangong” for “temengang”. Each stood at the head of a number of underlings.

[8] I have found the equivalent of “piskal” for meisege as the title of a customs officer (see “Record of Kalapa”, appendix to Kaiba lidai shiji page 9).

[9] A place in the center of Batavia. Its Chinese name is Danlanwang 丹藍望.

[10] The police court where criminals and trespassers were first brought on arrest. Chinese: “gandao”干刀.

[11] A place in Batavia. Its Chinese name is Junling’an 君領安.

[12] The owner of the flower-boat is questioned later in this audience.

[13] A “flower-boat” or brothel.

[14] A place in the center of Batavia. Its Chinese name is Ganmi 甘密.

[15] According to the name Lanming 覽冥, this person cannot be a Chinese.

[16] “Wang”亡, in Hokkien “bong”, probably for a Malay name. The suffix 仔 is pronounced ‘a’ in Hokkien.

[17] The character , pronounced “Nai” is a prefix used by Chinese in Indonesia for an old lady.

[18] Perhaps Manilla Reals.

[19] She must be a non-Chinese.

[20] A place in the neighbourhood of Batavia.

[21] A Chinese title for the local warden.

[22] The Chinese expression is “biaomei 標梅”.

[23] The Chinese expression is “susi 素絲”.

[24] The Chinese term is Aishilian 挨實連.

[25] That is: the Kong Koan.

[26] This person apparently was Lady Qiu Niangna’s close relative.

[27] This last paragraph is a summary of the Chinese text.

[28] Probably a European lady, Margery?

“The Last Resort:Sino-Dutch Marital Relations Appearing before the Chinese Councl in Early 19th Century Batavia”，发表于The Archives of the Kong Koan of Batavia, Brill：Leiden，2003年。